election: what were Michigan voters sharing over Twitter? Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford (2017) Howard, P.N., Bolsover, G., Kollanyi, B., Bradshaw, S., Neudert, L.-M.: Junk news and bots during the U.S. Information Warfare und Desinformation als Bedrohung digitaler Öffentlichkeiten. Schatto-Eckrodt, T., Boberg, S., Wintterlin, F., Frischlich, L., Quandt, T.: Bedrohte Deliberation.
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(eds.) Öffentlich-rechtlicher Rundfunk in Zeiten des Populismus, pp. European Commission, Brussels (2018)įrischlich, L.: Fake News und Social Bots - Erkennung, Wirkung, Bekämpfung. Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford (2017)Ĭommission, E.: Corporate Social Responsibility: Commission Launches European Multi-Stakeholder Forum. Woolley, S.C., Howard, P.N.: Computational Propaganda Worldwide: Executive Summary. The results show that an infrastructure for digital manipulation is widely available online, and that the tools for artificial content or connectedness amplification are easily accessible for lay users and are cheap on Clearnet and Darknet markets. The present study used an ethnographic approach to study the accessibility, availability, and prices for pseudo-users and social bots on markets in the (German- and English-language) Clearnet and Darknet. Thus, it is plausible that a digital goods market has emerged for the exchange of social bots and infrastructure components. Users and providers of social bots and their infrastructure can differ. Social bots, as a (semi-)automated pseudo-user type, are part of a larger infrastructure, among others, entailing network access, fake accounts, and hosting services. Accumulating global evidence shows that pseudo-users are used for different purposes, such as the amplification of political topics or the simulation of large numbers of followers. election, much has been speculated about the use of so-called social bots, (semi-)automatized pseudo-users in online media, as political manipulation tools.
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